Phase 1:

Literature Reviews

Goal : Use critical literature reviews and philosophical conceptual analysis to formulate and publish theoretically informed accounts of altruism in end-of-life caregiving.

Evolutionary biologists typically define “altruism” as action done for another at a cost to the self. In contrast, sociologists and psychologists focus on the motivation behind altruistic action. Research interpreted through an evolutionary lens seems to imply that all actions are done to further survival and fitness, but this overlooks the human ability to overcome this genetic predisposition to intend and carry out altruistic action (May n.d.). Philosophical discourses also lack consensus on the nature of altruistic motivation. In the tradition of Hobbes and Bentham, psychological egoists suggest that all actions are ultimately motivated by self-interest (May n.d.). However, most contemporary philosophers reject this view, noting that just because impulses belong to the self does not mean they function only to bring happiness to the self (May n.d.). Psychological altruists suggest that altruistic action is motivated by empathy, an intrinsic reaction to perceived need combined with a desire to reduce the pain of others (de Waal 2008; Agosta n.d.; Warneken and Tomasello 2006). As seen from the multiple conceptions of altruism discussed here, there is an apparent need for clarity regarding the extent to which self-interest can co-mingle with altruistic motivation.

Past empirical work seems to show that empathy and self-interest can co-exist as motivators for caring action (Claxton-Oldfield et al. 2012). Hospice volunteers are mainly motivated by compassion toward people in need, but also by self-directed interests in learning, fostering social relationships, increasing self-esteem, and furthering career goals (Planalp and Trost 2009). Nocon and Pearson make similar claims about the motivations of friends and neighbors involved in supporting the dying.

Phase 4:

Guidelines to Inform Solutions

Goal : Use the results of the literature review and interviews to provide conceptual resources to promote compassionate communities

Findings from the literature review on the empirical and theoretical considerations of the role of altruistic and self-interested motivators to care for others at the end-of-life will be combined with qualitative results from interviews with informal caregivers. The results will help empirical researchers to better operationalize the term “altruism” (and related terms), and will inform ongoing theoretical discussions concerning the nature of altruistic motivation. The work of this phase will also provide interdisciplinary researchers with a third example of the benefits of joining philosophical-conceptual research with social-scientific study to enrich our shared knowledge base.